Padikam Lessons Library | Kerala SCERT & CBSE NCERT Textbooks

SCERT KeralaClass 12Chemistry

Chemistry

14 chapters PDF / 92 KB

ORIGINAL STUDY COMPANION PADIKAM CLASS 12 | SCIENCE Chemistry Kerala SCERT / prescribed NCERT core lessons 14 chapter lessons Quick explanations, core points, exam practice and chapter-specific notation in one consistent format. Padikam explanations are independently written. Official textbooks are used as the coverage map, chapter sequence and terminology reference. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 1

Contents 01 Solutions 08 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 02 Electrochemistry 09 Amines 03 Chemical Kinetics 10 Biomolecules 04 The d- and f-Block Elements 11 Formative Reading: Surface Chemistry 05 Coordination Compounds 12 Formative Reading: Isolation of Elements 06 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes 13 Formative Reading: Polymers 07 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 14 Formative Reading: Chemistry in Everyday Life Study rhythm Read the quick explanation, recall the core points aloud, then answer the prompts without looking back. Use the official textbook links for full prescribed readings, activities and diagrams. Textbook and verification links

CHAPTER 01 Solutions Quick understanding Solution properties depend on composition and on how solute particles interact with solvent particles. Core points Check your learning Concentration may be expressed by mole fraction, Explain the central idea of Solutions in molarity or molality. your own words. Raoult law describes ideal volatile components. Apply one idea from Solutions to a textbook-style example or source. Colligative properties depend on the number of dissolved particles. Equation and notation M = n(solute) / V(solution) m = n(solute) / mass(solvent in kg) ΔTᵦ = iKᵦm; ΔT𝒇 = iK𝒇m π = iCRT SYMBOLS AND UNITS M: molarity (mol L⁻¹) m: molality (mol kg⁻¹) n: amount of substance (mol) V: solution volume (L) i: van t Hoff factor Kᵦ, K𝒇: ebullioscopic and cryoscopic constants (K kg mol⁻¹) π: osmotic pressure (Pa) C: molar concentration (mol m⁻³) R: gas constant (J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹) T: temperature (K) One-line recall Concentration may be expressed by mole fraction, molarity or molality. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 3

CHAPTER 02 Electrochemistry Quick understanding Electrochemistry connects spontaneous redox reactions with electrical work and uses supplied electricity to drive non-spontaneous change. Core points Check your learning Galvanic cells convert chemical energy to electrical Explain the central idea of energy. Electrochemistry in your own words. The Nernst equation relates cell potential to Apply one idea from Electrochemistry to concentration. a textbook-style example or source. Conductivity depends on ions, concentration and temperature. Equation and notation Ecell = Ecathode - Eanode ΔG = -nFEcell E = E° - (RT / nF) ln Q Λₘ = κ × 1000 / C SYMBOLS AND UNITS Ecell, E°: cell potentials (V) ΔG: Gibbs energy change (J mol⁻¹) n: electrons transferred per reaction F: Faraday constant (C mol⁻¹) R: gas constant (J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹) T: temperature (K) Q: reaction quotient Λₘ: molar conductivity (S m² mol⁻¹) κ: conductivity (S m⁻¹) C: concentration (mol m⁻³) One-line recall Galvanic cells convert chemical energy to electrical energy. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 4

CHAPTER 03 Chemical Kinetics Quick understanding Reaction rate measures change of concentration with time and reflects the pathway and energy barrier of a reaction. Core points Check your learning Rate law is established experimentally. Explain the central idea of Chemical Kinetics in your own words. Reaction order need not equal stoichiometric coefficients. Apply one idea from Chemical Kinetics to a textbook-style example or source. Temperature changes the rate constant through the Arrhenius relation. Equation and notation Rate = k[A]^m[B]^n For first order: ln([A]₀/[A]) = kt t½(first order) = 0.693 / k k = Ae^(-Eₐ/RT) SYMBOLS AND UNITS Rate: concentration change per time (mol L⁻¹ s⁻¹) k: rate constant with order-dependent unit [A], [B]: molar concentrations (mol L⁻¹) m, n: partial orders t, t½: time and half-life (s) A: frequency factor Eₐ: activation energy (J mol⁻¹) R: gas constant (J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹) T: temperature (K) One-line recall Rate law is established experimentally. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 5

CHAPTER 04 The d- and f-Block Elements Quick understanding Partly filled d or f subshells produce characteristic oxidation states, colours, magnetism and complex formation. Core points Check your learning Transition elements show variable oxidation states. Explain the central idea of The d- and f- Block Elements in your own words. Lanthanoid contraction affects sizes and separation. Apply one idea from The d- and f-Block Oxidation state and ligand environment influence Elements to a textbook-style example or colour and reactivity. source. One-line recall Transition elements show variable oxidation states. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 6

CHAPTER 05 Coordination Compounds Quick understanding A coordination entity contains a central metal bonded to ligands in a defined geometry and oxidation state. Core points Check your learning Name ligands before the metal and calculate Explain the central idea of Coordination oxidation state carefully. Compounds in your own words. Coordination number is not the same as oxidation Apply one idea from Coordination number. Compounds to a textbook-style example or source. Isomerism and bonding models explain different structures and properties. Equation and notation EAN = Z - oxidation state + electrons donated by ligands Magnetic moment μ = √(n(n + 2)) BM SYMBOLS AND UNITS EAN: effective atomic number Z: atomic number n: number of unpaired electrons μ: spin-only magnetic moment (BM) BM: Bohr magneton One-line recall Name ligands before the metal and calculate oxidation state carefully. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 7

CHAPTER 06 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes Quick understanding Carbon-halogen compounds react according to bond polarity, substrate structure, nucleophile strength and reaction conditions. Core points Check your learning SN1 and SN2 mechanisms differ in steps and Explain the central idea of Haloalkanes stereochemical outcome. and Haloarenes in your own words. Aryl halides resist ordinary nucleophilic substitution Apply one idea from Haloalkanes and because the C-X bond has partial double-bond Haloarenes to a textbook-style example character. or source. Some polyhalogen compounds persist and harm the environment. One-line recall SN1 and SN2 mechanisms differ in steps and stereochemical outcome. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 8

CHAPTER 07 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers Quick understanding The hydroxyl group and ether linkage control hydrogen bonding, acidity and characteristic substitution or oxidation reactions. Core points Check your learning Alcohol boiling points reflect intermolecular hydrogen Explain the central idea of Alcohols, bonding. Phenols and Ethers in your own words. Phenol is more acidic than an alcohol because Apply one idea from Alcohols, Phenols phenoxide is resonance stabilised. and Ethers to a textbook-style example or source. Ethers can be prepared by Williamson synthesis and cleaved by strong hydrogen halides. One-line recall Alcohol boiling points reflect intermolecular hydrogen bonding. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 9

CHAPTER 08 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Quick understanding Carbonyl polarity drives nucleophilic addition, while the carboxyl group combines carbonyl reactivity with acidic behaviour. Core points Check your learning Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones Explain the central idea of Aldehydes, toward nucleophiles. Ketones and Carboxylic Acids in your own words. Oxidation tests distinguish many aldehydes from ketones. Apply one idea from Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids to a textbook-style Electron-withdrawing groups increase carboxylic-acid example or source. strength. One-line recall Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones toward nucleophiles. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 10

CHAPTER 09 Amines Quick understanding Amines are nitrogen bases whose structure, lone pair availability and substituents determine basicity and reactions. Core points Check your learning Classify amines by carbon groups attached to Explain the central idea of Amines in nitrogen. your own words. Basicity order depends on solvent, inductive effect Apply one idea from Amines to a and resonance. textbook-style example or source. Aromatic diazonium salts are valuable intermediates for substitution and azo coupling. One-line recall Classify amines by carbon groups attached to nitrogen. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 11

CHAPTER 10 Biomolecules Quick understanding Carbohydrates, proteins, enzymes, vitamins and nucleic acids provide structure, energy, catalysis and biological information. Core points Check your learning Monomers join through characteristic glycosidic, Explain the central idea of Biomolecules peptide or phosphodiester links. in your own words. Protein function depends on levels of structure. Apply one idea from Biomolecules to a textbook-style example or source. DNA stores hereditary information; RNA performs several expression roles. One-line recall Monomers join through characteristic glycosidic, peptide or phosphodiester links. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 12

CHAPTER 11 Formative Reading: Surface Chemistry Quick understanding Study adsorption, catalysis and colloids as surface-controlled phenomena with major industrial and biological uses. Core points Check your learning Adsorption occurs at a surface and differs from bulk Explain the central idea of Formative absorption. Reading: Surface Chemistry in your own words. Catalysts change reaction pathway and rate without changing equilibrium position. Apply one idea from Formative Reading: Surface Chemistry to a textbook-style Colloids show characteristic scattering, charge and example or source. stability behaviour. Equation and notation Freundlich form: x/m = kP^(1/n) SYMBOLS AND UNITS x: mass adsorbed m: mass of adsorbent P: gas pressure (Pa) k, n: empirical constants with system-dependent units One-line recall Adsorption occurs at a surface and differs from bulk absorption. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 13

CHAPTER 12 Formative Reading: Isolation of Elements Quick understanding Connect ore concentration, reduction, refining and thermodynamic feasibility with the production of useful metals. Core points Check your learning The extraction route depends on metal reactivity and Explain the central idea of Formative ore chemistry. Reading: Isolation of Elements in your own words. Ellingham reasoning compares oxidation tendencies through Gibbs energy. Apply one idea from Formative Reading: Isolation of Elements to a textbook-style Refining removes impurities to meet the required example or source. purity. Equation and notation ΔG = ΔH - TΔS SYMBOLS AND UNITS ΔG: Gibbs energy change (J mol⁻¹) ΔH: enthalpy change (J mol⁻¹) T: absolute temperature (K) ΔS: entropy change (J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹) One-line recall The extraction route depends on metal reactivity and ore chemistry. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 14

CHAPTER 13 Formative Reading: Polymers Quick understanding Classify macromolecules by source, structure, formation and intermolecular forces and relate these features to use and disposal. Core points Check your learning Addition polymerisation joins unsaturated monomers Explain the central idea of Formative without a small-molecule by-product. Reading: Polymers in your own words. Condensation polymerisation forms links while Apply one idea from Formative Reading: eliminating small molecules. Polymers to a textbook-style example or source. Thermoplastic, thermosetting, fibre and elastomer behaviour follows chain structure and bonding. One-line recall Addition polymerisation joins unsaturated monomers without a small-molecule by-product. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 15

CHAPTER 14 Formative Reading: Chemistry in Everyday Life Quick understanding Use chemical principles to understand medicines, food additives, cleansing agents and responsible product use. Core points Check your learning Drug action depends on biological targets, dose and Explain the central idea of Formative route. Reading: Chemistry in Everyday Life in your own words. Antibiotics do not treat viral infection and misuse encourages resistance. Apply one idea from Formative Reading: Chemistry in Everyday Life to a textbook- Soaps and detergents form micelles, but their style example or source. environmental behaviour differs. One-line recall Drug action depends on biological targets, dose and route. PADIKAM | KERALA CLASS 12 16